Relatives of rubella virus in diverse mammals.

Since 1814, when rubella was first described, the origins of the disease and its causative agent, rubella virus (Matonaviridae: Rubivirus), have remained unclear1. Here we describe ruhugu virus and rustrela virus in Africa and Europe, respectively, which are, to our knowledge, the first known relatives of rubella virus. Ruhugu virus, which is the closest relative of rubella virus, was found in apparently healthy cyclops leaf-nosed bats (Hipposideros cyclops) in Uganda. Rustrela virus, which is an outgroup to the clade that comprises rubella and ruhugu viruses, was found in acutely encephalitic placental and marsupial animals at a zoo in Germany and in wild yellow-necked field mice (Apodemus flavicollis) at and near the zoo. Ruhugu and rustrela viruses share an identical genomic architecture with rubella virus2,3. The amino acid sequences of four putative B cell epitopes in the fusion (E1) protein of the rubella, ruhugu and rustrela viruses and two putative T cell epitopes in the capsid protein of the rubella and ruhugu viruses are moderately to highly conserved4-6. Modelling of E1 homotrimers in the post-fusion state predicts that ruhugu and rubella viruses have a similar capacity for fusion with the host-cell membrane5. Together, these findings show that some members of the family Matonaviridae can cross substantial barriers between host species and that rubella virus probably has a zoonotic origin. Our findings raise concerns about future zoonotic transmission of rubella-like viruses, but will facilitate comparative studies and animal models of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome.

PARAMETERS FOR IDENTIFYING FAILURE OF PASSIVE TRANSFER IN SITATUNGA (TRAGELAPHUS SPEKII).

Failure of passive transfer of immunity (FPT) leads to increased calf morbidity and mortality and requires intensive, time-sensitive, and often expensive management for nondomestic ruminants. Without species-specific information with which to make informed decisions, neonatal data from domestic ruminants are often extrapolated to nondomestic zoo-housed species. To date, there have been no studies evaluating FPT in sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii). The goal of the present study was to establish parameters to characterize adequate passive transfer in sitatunga calves and compare them to published reference intervals in other species. Medical records of 22 sitatunga calves (12 female, 10 male) were reviewed. Seventeen of these calves were defined as "healthy," having survived at least 60 days without colostrum administration or a plasma transfusion. Calf weight, serum glucose, serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), total protein (TP), globulin concentrations, and results of a zinc sulfate turbidity test (ZSTT) were noted where possible. Mean birth weight of healthy calves at 24 hr was 4.5 kg (range: 3.76.5 kg, n = 12). The mean blood glucose in healthy calves was 152 mg/dl (range: 80-182, n = 16), mean serum TP concentration was 5.9 g/dl (range: 4.9-7.5, n = 16), mean serum globulin concentration was 3.3 g/dl (range: 1.7-4.7, n = 17), and mean serum GGT concentration was 466 U/L (range: 91-1901, n = 16). A ZSTT was performed for 10 healthy calves, resulting in four negative ZSTT results despite having no clinical signs of FPT and the calves having been observed nursing before testing. Sitatunga appear to have lower values for normal FPT parameters than those developed for domestic cattle. This study illustrates the difficulty of cross-species comparisons, as even closely related species can vary greatly in biologic parameters.

IMMUNOMEDIATOR GENE TRANSCRIPTION PROFILING IN BELUGA WHALE (DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS) CLINICAL CASES.

There is an unmet need for specific diagnostics of immune perturbations and inflammation in beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) clinical care. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) has been used to measure immunomediator gene transcription in beluga whales. The study hypothesis was that a qPCR-based immunomediator assay would supplement routine clinical data with specific and sensitive information on immune status. Two beluga whale clinical cases provided an opportunity to test this hypothesis: a whale with a skin laceration and a whale with gastrointestinal inflammation. Mitogen-stimulated immunomediator gene transcription (MSIGT) was compared between the cases and healthy contact whales. In both case studies, mitogens increased transcription of IL1B, PTGS2 (Cox-2), TNF, HIF1A, and IL2 but decreased IL10 transcription in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from the abnormal whale over the control. Correlations were identified between most immunomediators tested and one or more standard blood clinical values. Considering all 15 immunomediators tested, the whale with gastrointestinal inflammation had a more unique MSIGT signature than the whale with a laceration. These results support further elucidation of beluga whale PBMC cytokine profiles for use as immune biomarkers.

Noninvasive measurement of mucosal immunity in a free-ranging baboon population.

Ecoimmunological patterns and processes remain understudied in wild primates, in part because of the lack of noninvasive methods to measure immunity. Secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) is the most abundant antibody present at mammalian mucosal surfaces and provides an important first line of defense against pathogens. Recent studies show that sIgA can be measured noninvasively in feces and is a good marker of mucosal immunity. Here we validated a commercial ELISA kit to measure fecal IgA in baboons, tested the robustness of its results to variation in collection and storage conditions, and developed a cost-effective in-house ELISA for baboon fecal IgA. Using data from the custom ELISA, we assessed the relationship between fecal IgA concentrations and gastrointestinal parasite burden, and tested how sex, age, and reproductive effort predict fecal IgA in wild baboons. We find that IgA concentrations can be measured in baboon feces using an in-house ELISA and are highly correlated to the values obtained with a commercial kit. Fecal IgA concentrations are stable when extracts are stored for up to 22 months at -20°C. Fecal IgA concentrations were negatively correlated with parasite egg counts (Trichuris trichiura), but not parasite richness. Fecal IgA did not vary between the sexes, but for males, concentrations were higher in adults versus adolescents. Lactating females had significantly lower fecal IgA than pregnant females, but neither pregnant nor lactating female concentrations differed significantly from cycling females. Males who engaged in more mate-guarding exhibited similar IgA concentrations to those who engaged in little mate-guarding. These patterns may reflect the low energetic costs of mucosal immunity, or the complex dependence of IgA excretion on individual condition. Adding a noninvasive measure of mucosal immunity will promote a better understanding of how ecology modulates possible tradeoffs between the immune system and other energetically costly processes in the wild.

Epizootological study on Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in the Czech Republic.

Toxoplasma gondii is protozoan parasite with ability of causing disease in wide-spectrum of animals; many species of animals in captivity died of clinical toxoplasmosis. The monitoring of T. gondii antibodies in zoo animals can be an important indicator of T. gondii circulation in zoo. The aim of this study was to examine sera of animals from eight Czech zoos by latex agglutination test with statistical evaluation and detect T. gondii DNA in stray cats and rodents captured in the zoos. T. gondii antibodies were detected in 33% of 1043 zoo animals without statistical difference between birds (27%, n = 74) and mammals (33%, n = 969). In birds, the chance to be infected with T. gondii was higher in Accipitriformes (71%) compared to Pelecaniformes (6%) (p < 0.0001). In mammals, the chance to be infected with T. gondii was higher in Carnivora (63%) compared to Cetarodactyla (30%), Perissodactyla (26%), Primates (28%) and Rodentia (13%) (p < 0.0001) and higher in Felidae (70%) compared to Bovidae (28%) and Equidae (28%) (p < 0.0001). Mammals with carnivore/scavenger way of feeding were in a higher risk of T. gondii infection compared to herbivores and omnivores (p < 0.0001). T. gondii DNA was detected in tissue of one stray cat while in none of 77 rodents caught in zoo. This study is the first report on toxoplasmosis in zoos from the Czech Republic including seroepidemiology and molecular detection.

Compositional and functional investigation of individual and pooled venoms from long-term captive and recently wild-caught Bothrops jararaca snakes.

Intraspecific venom variability has been extensively reported in a number of species and is documented to be the result of several factors. However, current evidence for snake venom variability related to captivity maintenance is controversial. Here we report a compositional and functional investigation of individual and pooled venoms from long-term captive (LTC) and recently wild-caught (RWC) B. jararaca snakes. The composition of individual venoms showed a remarkable variability in terms of relative abundance of toxins (evidenced by 1-DE and RP-HPLC), enzymatic activities (proteolytic, PLA2, and LAAO) and coagulant activity, even among captive specimens. Thus, no compositional and functional pattern could be established to assign each individual venom to a specific group. Conversely, pooled venom from LTC and RWC snakes showed no significant differences regarding protein composition (characterized by 1-DE and shotgun proteomics), enzymatic activities (proteolytic, PLA2 and LAAO) and biological function (coagulant, hemorrhagic and lethal activities), except for edematogenic activity, which was more prominent in RWC venom pool. Additionally, both pooled venoms displayed similar immunoreactivity with the bothropic antivenom produced by Instituto Butantan. Taken together, our results highlight the complexity and the high intraspecific variation of B. jararaca venom, that is not influenced at a discernible extent by captivity maintenance. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Bothrops jararaca snakes are one of the main causes of snakebites in Southeastern Brazil. Due to its medical interest, the venom of this species is the most studied and characterized among Brazilian snakes and captive B. jararaca specimens are maintained for long periods of time in our venom production facility. However, knowledge on the influence of captivity maintenance on B. jararaca venom variability is scarce. In this report, we described a high compositional and functional variability of individual venoms from LTC and RWC B. jararaca snakes, which are not observed between LTC and RWC pooled venoms. This intraspecific variability is more likely to be due to genetic/populational differences rather than "captivity vs wild" conditions. In this regard, data generated by the present work support the use of venom from captive and wild snakes for antivenom production and scientific research. Moreover, the data generated by this study highlight the importance of analyzing individual venom samples in studies involving intraspecific venom variability.

Seroprevalence of selected flaviviruses in free-living and captive capuchin monkeys in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil.

Mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue, yellow fever and, more recently, Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Zika virus (ZIKV) have a great impact in the public health. In addition, the presence of such viruses might have an impact on wild animal conservation as well as their possible role as animal reservoir. Here, we performed a serological survey searching for antibodies against a panel of flaviviruses [ZIKV, Dengue virus (DENV), Yellow Fever virus (YFV), West Nile virus (WNV), Saint Louis Encephalitis virus (SLEV), Ilheus virus (ILHV) and Rocio virus (ROCV)] using plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT90 ) in both free-ranging and captive capuchin monkeys (Sapajus flavius and Sapajus libidinosus). Captive and free-living monkeys were sampled between June 2015 and January 2016 in the state of Pernambuco, including in the border with State of Paraíba, the epicentre of the ZIKV epidemics in Brazil. We have found neutralizing antibodies for ZIKV, DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, DENV-4, YFV, ILHV and SLEV in both S. flavius and S. libidinosus samples. No positives samples were found for ROCV and WNV. Our results suggest that these flaviviruses might be circulating in capuchin monkey in the studied region. The possible presence of these viruses represents a risk for public health, as well as for animal conservation, especially for S. flavius which is a critically endangered species, facing high risk of extinction.

Serological survey of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies in Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) at the Curitiba Zoo, southern Brazil / Estudo sorológico de anticorpos anti-Leptospira spp. em aoudads (Ammotragus lervia) no zoológico de Curitiba, sul do Brasil

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis, affecting humans, domestic and wild animals. The present study aimed to evaluate prevalence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies in Barbary sheep at the Curitiba zoo. Microscopic agglutination test (MAT) was performed using 17 serogroups. Antibodies against Leptospira spp. were observed in 23.5% samples and Icterohaemorrhagiae was the only prevalent serogroup. The presence of anti-Leptospira antibodies in Barbary sheep indicates exposure to leptospires; thus monitoring and preventive measures are necessary in zoo's captive animals, since they can act as sentinels of environmental exposure in an area with high movement of people.(AU)

A leptospirose é uma zoonose mundial que afeta seres humanos, animais domésticos e selvagens. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar a prevalência de anticorpos anti-Leptospira spp. em aoudads do zoológico de Curitiba. Foi realizado o teste de Soroaglutinação microscópica (SAM) utilizando 17 sorogrupos. Anticorpos contra Leptospira spp. foram observados em 23.5% das amostras de aoudads e Icterohaemorrhagiae foi o único sorogrupo prevalente. A presença de anticorpos em aoudads indica exposição a leptospiras portanto monitoramento e medidas preventivas são necessários em animais confinados em zoológicos, uma vez eles podem atuar como sentinelas de exposição ambiental em uma área com alta circulação de pessoas.(AU)

Longitudinal evaluation of leukocyte transcripts in killer whales (Orcinus Orca).

Early identification of illness and/or presence of environmental and/or social stressors in free-ranging and domestic cetaceans is a priority for marine mammal health care professionals. Incorporation of leukocyte gene transcript analysis into the diagnostic tool kit has the potential to augment classical diagnostics based upon ease of sample storage and shipment, inducible nature and well-defined roles of transcription and associated downstream actions. Development of biomarkers that could serve to identify "insults" and potentially differentiate disease etiology would be of great diagnostic value. To this end, a modest number of peripheral blood leukocyte gene transcripts were selected for application to a domestic killer whale population with a focus on broad representation of inducible immunologically relevant genes. Normalized leukocyte transcript values, longitudinally acquired from 232 blood samples derived from 26 clinically healthy whales, were not visibly influenced temporally nor by sex or the specific Park in which they resided. Stability in leukocyte transcript number during periods of health enhances their potential use in diagnostics through identification of outliers. Transcript levels of two cytokine genes, IL-4 and IL-17, were highly variable within the group as compared to the other transcripts. IL-4 transcripts were typically absent. Analysis of transcript levels on the other genes of interest, on an individual animal basis, identified more outliers than were visible when analyzed in the context of the entire population. The majority of outliers (9 samples) were low, though elevated transcripts were identified for IL-17 from 2 animals and one each for Cox-2 and IL-10. The low number of outliers was not unexpected as sample selection was intentionally directed towards animals that were clinically healthy at the time of collection. Outliers may reflect animals experiencing subclinical disease that is transient and self-limiting. The immunologic knowledge derived from longitudinal immunologic studies in killer whales, as was the target of the present study, has the potential to improve diagnostics and health related decision making for this and other domestic and free-ranging cetacean species.

Influence of dietary protein on serum metabolites and antioxidant status: A study in Chrysolophus amherstiae.

This experiment was conducted to study the effect of feeding graded levels of dietary crude protein (CP) on serum biochemical profile of Lady Amherst's pheasants (LAP). Eighteen male LAP were randomly distributed into three groups of six each in an experiment based on completely randomized design. The CP content of the diets was 13.4%, 16.5%, and 19.1%, in groups I, II, and III, respectively. Serum concentrations of uric acid was lowest (P < 0.05) in group I. Relationship between serum concentration of uric acid and nitrogen intake was linear (R(2) = 0.39, P < 0.01). Concentrations of other serum metabolites and enzymes were similar among the groups. Serum concentration of triiodothyronine (T3 ) was highest (P < 0.05) in group I, followed by groups II and III. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of serum was lower (P < 0.007), whereas serum concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) was higher (P < 0.001) in group I as compared to groups II and III. Regression of serum concentration of TAC (R(2) = 0.74, P < 0.01) and MDA (R(2) = 0.39, P < 0.05) was polynomial. Heterophil to lymphocyte ratio was higher (P < 0.007) in group I as compared to groups II and III. Relationship between H/L ratio and nitrogen intake was polynomial (R(2) = 0.69, P < 0.05). Cell mediated immune response measured as foot web index was similar among the groups. Based upon the results, it was concluded that a diet containing 16.5% crude protein would be optimum for improving antioxidant defense and the ability of Lady Amherst's pheasant to combat stress. Zoo Biol. 35:346-354, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Vaccination against H5 avian influenza virus induces long-term humoral immune responses in flamingoes (Phoenicopterus spp.).

Avian influenza (AI) can represent a threat to endangered wild birds, as demonstrated with the H5N1 highly pathogenic AI (HPAI) outbreaks. Vaccination against AI using inactivated H5-vaccines has been shown to induce humoral immune response in zoo bird species. In this study, the long-term efficacy of H5-vaccination was evaluated in flamingoes from Barcelona Zoo. Specific H5-antibody titres were maintained at high levels (geometric mean titres ≥32) for over 7 years after vaccination, both against the H5N9 and H5N3 vaccine strains, as well as H5N3 and H5N1 reference strains. In addition the breadth of the immune response was also studied by testing antibody production against H1-, H3-, H4-, H7-, and H10-subtypes. It was observed that most flamingoes presented specific antibodies against H1 virus subtypes, but titres to the other HA-subtypes were rarely detected. We show that AI-vaccines can induce immunity lasting seven years in flamingoes, which suggests that vaccination can provide long term protection from HPAI outbreaks in zoo birds.

Occurrence of antibodies anti -Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Leptospira interrogans in a captive deer herd in Southern Brazil.

A large number of Brazilian zoos keep many endangered species of deer, however, very few disease surveillance studies have been conducted among captive cervids. Blood samples from 32 Brazilian deer (Blastocerus dichotomus, Mazama nana and Mazama americana) kept in captivity at Bela Vista Biological Sanctuary (Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil) were investigated for 10 ruminant pathogens, with the aims of monitoring deer health status and evaluating any potential zoonotic risk. Deer serum samples were tested for Brucella abortus, Leptospira (23 serovars), Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, bovine viral diarrhea virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, western equine encephalitis virus, eastern equine encephalitis virus and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Antibodies against T. gondii (15.6%), N. caninum (6.2%) and L. interrogans serogroup Serjoe (3.1%) were detected. The serological results for all other infectious agents were negative. The deer were considered to be clinically healthy and asymptomatic regarding any disease. Compared with studies on free-ranging deer, the prevalences of the same agents tested among the captive deer kept at the Sanctuary were lower, thus indicating good sanitary conditions and high-quality management practices at the zoo.

Occurrence of antibodies anti -Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Leptospira interrogans in a captive deer herd in Southern Brazil / Ocorrência de anticorpos anti -Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum e Leptospira interrogans em um rebanho de cervídeos de cativeiro do sul do Brasil

Abstract A large number of Brazilian zoos keep many endangered species of deer, however, very few disease surveillance studies have been conducted among captive cervids. Blood samples from 32 Brazilian deer (Blastocerus dichotomus, Mazama nana and Mazama americana) kept in captivity at Bela Vista Biological Sanctuary (Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil) were investigated for 10 ruminant pathogens, with the aims of monitoring deer health status and evaluating any potential zoonotic risk. Deer serum samples were tested for Brucella abortus, Leptospira (23 serovars), Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, bovine viral diarrhea virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, western equine encephalitis virus, eastern equine encephalitis virus and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Antibodies against T. gondii (15.6%), N. caninum (6.2%) and L. interrogans serogroup Serjoe (3.1%) were detected. The serological results for all other infectious agents were negative. The deer were considered to be clinically healthy and asymptomatic regarding any disease. Compared with studies on free-ranging deer, the prevalences of the same agents tested among the captive deer kept at the Sanctuary were lower, thus indicating good sanitary conditions and high-quality management practices at the zoo.

Resumo Um grande número de zoológicos brasileiros abriga espécies de cervídeos ameaçados de extinção, entretanto, estudos de vigilância de doenças em cervídeos de cativeiro são escassos. Amostras de sangue de 32 cervídeos brasileiros (Blastocerus dichotomus, Mazama nana e Mazama americana), mantidos em cativeiro no Refúgio Biológico Bela Vista (Foz do Iguaçu, Brasil), foram investigados para 10 patógenos de ruminantes, visando monitorar o estado de saúde dos cervídeos e avaliar a presença de agentes zoonóticos. As amostras de soro foram testadas para Brucella abortus, Leptospira (23 sorovares), Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, diarreia viral bovina, rinotraqueíte infecciosa bovina, febre aftosa, encefalomielite equina do oeste, encefalomielite equina do leste e encefalomielite equina venezuelana. Foram detectados anticorpos para T. gondii (15,6%), N. caninum (6,2%) e para L. interrogans sorogrupo Serjoe (3,1%). As sorologias apresentaram resultado negativo para as demais doenças. Os cervídeos foram considerados clinicamente sadios e assintomáticos para doenças. Comparados aos estudos de populações de vida livre, as soroprevalências para os mesmos agentes testados foram menores para os cervídeos mantidos no Refúgio, indicando as boas condições sanitárias e a qualidade das práticas de manejo no zoológico.

Markedly Elevated Antibody Responses in Wild versus Captive Spotted Hyenas Show that Environmental and Ecological Factors Are Important Modulators of Immunity.

Evolutionary processes have shaped the vertebrate immune system over time, but proximal mechanisms control the onset, duration, and intensity of immune responses. Based on testing of the hygiene hypothesis, it is now well known that microbial exposure is important for proper development and regulation of the immune system. However, few studies have examined the differences between wild animals in their natural environments, in which they are typically exposed to a wide array of potential pathogens, and their conspecifics living in captivity. Wild spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are regularly exposed to myriad pathogens, but there is little evidence of disease-induced mortality in wild hyena populations, suggesting that immune defenses are robust in this species. Here we assessed differences in immune defenses between wild spotted hyenas that inhabit their natural savanna environment and captive hyenas that inhabit a captive environment where pathogen control programs are implemented. Importantly, the captive population of spotted hyenas was derived directly from the wild population and has been in captivity for less than four generations. Our results show that wild hyenas have significantly higher serum antibody concentrations, including total IgG and IgM, natural antibodies, and autoantibodies than do captive hyenas; there was no difference in the bacterial killing capacity of sera collected from captive and wild hyenas. The striking differences in serum antibody concentrations observed here suggest that complementing traditional immunology studies, with comparative studies of wild animals in their natural environment may help to uncover links between environment and immune function, and facilitate progress towards answering immunological questions associated with the hygiene hypothesis.

Detection of anti-Leptospira antibodies in captive nonhuman primates from Salvador, Brazil.

Leptospirosis is a widely distributed zoonosis that affects several species of domestic and wild animals. Under captive conditions, Leptospirosis is a potential problem because the physical conditions in most zoos and research centers cannot prevent the captive animals from being exposed to rodents, raccoons, opossums, and other local wildlife that are known carriers. Yet, despite the potential risk, animals that are destined for reintroduction into the wild are not routinely tested for anti-Leptospira antibodies before their release. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of anti-Leptospira antibodies in captive New World monkeys that were housed in the Wild Animals Screening Center in Salvador, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 44 monkeys (28 Callithrix jacchus, eight Callithrix pennicilata, and eight Cebus sp.). The animals were screened for antibodies with the microscopic agglutination test. Twenty-five (56.8%) primates were seroreactive, with Icterohaemorrhagiae being the most frequent serogroup. None of the monkeys, however, presented clinical signs of leptospirosis. Thus, seroreactivity with low titers in asymptomatic animals, as observed in this study, suggests exposure to the agent. The unexpected predominance of the serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae further suggests that exposure to this serogroup occurred in captivity. Therefore, the dangerous possibility cannot be ignored that reintroduced monkeys will carry the leptospiral serovars into wild populations. In conclusion, primates exposed to urban serovars before their release from captivity represent a potentially significant health risk to wild populations.

Anticuerpos contra Leptospira sp. en primates neotropicales y trabajadores de un zoológico colombiano / Leptospiral antibodies in a Colombian zoo's Neotropical primates and workers

Objetivo Detectar anticuerpos contra Leptospira sp. en primates neotropicales y funcionarios de un zoológico colombiano e identificar factores de riesgo de la enfermedad. Métodos Se realizó un estudio transversal analítico en 65 primates y 20 funcionarios del Zoológico. Las muestras fueron procesadas mediante la técnica de Microaglutinación macroscópica (MAT) usando un cepario de referencia conformado por 21 serovares de Leptospira sp. Se aplicó un instrumento estructurado al personal evaluado para identificar factores de riesgo. Resultados La seroprevalencia de la infección por Leptospira sp. fue del 25 % (5/20) en el personal y 23,07 % (15/65) en los monos neotropicales. Los serovares más frecuentes entre los funcionarios fueron bataviae, gryppotyphosa y hurstbridge. En los monos neotropicales predominaron los serovares icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona y ranarum. Las especies mono araña negro (Ateles fusciceps), mono cariblanco (Cebus albifrons) y tití gris (Saguinus leucopus), presentaron mayor reactividad. La mayor proporción del personal usaba dotación de protección. Conclusiones Se evidenció el contacto de los primates neotropicales y del personal con diferentes serovares de Leptospira. El uso de la dotación de protección y el tiempo de experiencia de los funcionarios del zoológico se consideraron como factores protectores de la enfermedad. Se sugiere que existe un riesgo de transmisión de leptospirosis, en los animales del zoológico y el personal, siendo por lo tanto importante fortalecer la vigilancia epidemiológica activa e implementar programas de promoción y prevención.

Objective Detecting antibodies against Leptospira spp. in Neotropical primates and workers in a Colombian Zoo and identifying the risk factors associated with the disease. Methods A cross-sectional study was performed regarding 65 Neotropical primates and 20 zookeepers. The samples were processed by microagglutination test (MAT) using a reference strain collection consisting of 21 Leptospira serovars. The people being evaluated were given a structured survey to identify risk factors. Results There was 25 % (5/20) Leptospira spp. infection seroprevalence in the staff and 23.07 % (15/65) in Neotropical monkeys. The most frequently occurring serovars in workers were bataviae, gryppotyphosa and ranarum; icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona and ranarum were the predominant serovars in non-human primates. The black spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps), white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons) and white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus) showed the highest reactivity. Most of the personnel were using protective clothing. Conclusions The contact between primates and zookeepers involving different Leptospira sp. serovars was evident. Zoo personnel using protective clothing and their length of experience were considered to be protective factors for the disease. There may be a risk of Leptospira transmission between zoo animals and staff, and it is therefore important to strengthen active surveillance and implement promotion and prevention programs.

[Leptospiral antibodies in a Colombian zoo's neotropical primates and workers]. / Anticuerpos contra Leptospira sp. en primates neotropicales y trabajadores de un zoológico colombiano.

OBJECTIVE: Detecting antibodies against Leptospira spp. in Neotropical primates and workers in a Colombian Zoo and identifying the risk factors associated with the disease. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed regarding 65 Neotropical primates and 20 zookeepers. The samples were processed by microagglutination test (MAT) using a reference strain collection consisting of 21 Leptospira serovars. The people being evaluated were given a structured survey to identify risk factors. RESULTS: There was 25 % (5/20) Leptospira spp. infection seroprevalence in the staff and 23.07 % (15/65) in Neotropical monkeys. The most frequently occurring serovars in workers were bataviae, gryppotyphosa and ranarum; icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona and ranarum were the predominant serovars in non-human primates. The black spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps), white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons) and white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus) showed the highest reactivity. Most of the personnel were using protective clothing. CONCLUSIONS: The contact between primates and zookeepers involving different Leptospira sp. serovars was evident. Zoo personnel using protective clothing and their length of experience were considered to be protective factors for the disease. There may be a risk of Leptospira transmission between zoo animals and staff, and it is therefore important to strengthen active surveillance and implement promotion and prevention programs.

MHC class I and MHC class II DRB gene variability in wild and captive Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris).

Bengal tigers are highly endangered and knowledge on adaptive genetic variation can be essential for efficient conservation and management. Here we present the first assessment of allelic variation in major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and MHC class II DRB genes for wild and captive tigers from India. We amplified, cloned, and sequenced alpha-1 and alpha-2 domain of MHC class I and beta-1 domain of MHC class II DRB genes in 16 tiger specimens of different geographic origin. We detected high variability in peptide-binding sites, presumably resulting from positive selection. Tigers exhibit a low number of MHC DRB alleles, similar to other endangered big cats. Our initial assessment-admittedly with limited geographic coverage and sample size-did not reveal significant differences between captive and wild tigers with regard to MHC variability. In addition, we successfully amplified MHC DRB alleles from scat samples. Our characterization of tiger MHC alleles forms a basis for further in-depth analyses of MHC variability in this illustrative threatened mammal.

Stress in wildlife species: noninvasive monitoring of glucocorticoids.

Depression and stress are related pathologies extensively studied in humans. However, this relationship is not well known in animals kept in zoos and even less known in wild animals. In zoo animals, acute and chronic stress caused by difficulties in coping with stressors such as public presence and noise, among others, can induce the appearance of repetitive pathological behaviors such as stereotypies, many times associated with organic pathologies that deeply affect their health and welfare. In the wild, factors such as deforestation, habitat fragmentation, lack of food and water, and human disturbances are potential causes of acute and chronic stress for the resident fauna. Glucocorticoids (GC) have been extensively used as stress indicators in many species including humans. Since chase and handling of wild animals immediately raise their GC serum levels, noninvasive methods have been developed to assess stress without interference caused by sample collection. The hormones and their metabolites can be measured in various body fluids and excreta and detect basal feedback free hormone concentrations as well as the response to ACTH and handling. In order to study the influence of disturbing factors we have measured GC as stress indicators by noninvasive techniques in dolphins and felids (ocelots, jaguarundis and margays) and cortisol and testosterone in spider monkeys.